{"id":2781,"date":"2014-07-14T09:48:50","date_gmt":"2014-07-14T13:48:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.fiqhulislam.com\/?p=2781"},"modified":"2014-07-14T09:48:50","modified_gmt":"2014-07-14T13:48:50","slug":"obligation-adhering-single-madhhab-rulings","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.fiqhulislam.com\/?p=2781","title":{"rendered":"The Obligation of Adhering to a Single Madhhab in all its Rulings"},"content":{"rendered":"

Title: The Obligation of Adhering to a Single Madhhab in all its Rulings\"download<\/a><\/strong>
\nComments from Mufti Ebrahim Desai Sahib:
\nThe concept of taqleed where one is bound to adhere to the rulings of one school of thought is often misunderstood as restricting, stagnating and constraining academics due to comparing taqleed to secular jurisprudence which can be elasticated to fit any context.
\nMaulana Zameelur Rahman (hafizahull\u0101h) has methodologically discussed the issue of taqleed as part of his Iftaa thesis in which he explains the concept, background and jurisprudence of taqleed and concludes rationalising that taqleed is actually the product of a perfect and complete juridical system unlike the secular juridical system which is still developing. May Allah accept the efforts of Maulana Zameelur Rahman and grant barakah in his uloom. Amin.
\nThe Obligation of Adhering to a Single Madhhab in all its Rulings
\nBy: Zameelur Rahman
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\nThe prevalent Deoband\u012b and Subcontinent position on the obligation of adhering to one school of jurisprudence (madhhab) in all its juristic rulings (mas\u0101\u2019il) has recently come under increasing scrutiny. We will argue in this paper that this position is not only more sound in our context, but is also supported by strong positions from within each of the four madhhabs and the stronger position of the Hanaf\u012b madhhab, with some of the early scholars having quoted consensus.
\nAs the discussion is relatively lengthy, readers who wish to avoid the details may skip the technical discussion and read the brief summary presented at the end.
\nThe view that we will support can be summarised in the following points:
\nIt is necessary for laypeople and scholars who are not mujtahids to make taql\u012bd of mujtahids.[1] Moreover, following from the third century of Hijrah, the number of mujtahids of all degrees became very few and far between.[2] Hence, the vast majority of people from that era onwards fall into this category.
\nAfter the codification of the madhhabs in approximately the fourth century of Hijrah, it was necessary for laypeople to adhere to a single madhhab in all its rulings. There are two principle reasons for this:
\nIf a layperson was given the option to adopt any position he likes from the various madhhabs, it would lead to freeing him from religious obligation (takl\u012bf), which forms the very foundation of a Muslim\u2019s relationship to the Shar\u012b\u2018ah. The reason for this is that the codified madhhabs generally address all small and major issues. On any particular issue, therefore, a muqallid would be exposed to multiple differing viewpoints. Hence, if given the option to choose between them, he will be at liberty to select an opinion based on his desires. He may even consider something har\u0101m at one point and hal\u0101l at another. In other words, d\u012bn becomes a thing of play, and religious obligation (takl\u012bf) becomes bereft of any meaning. This dangerous implication has been expressly mentioned or alluded to by a number of major early authorities, including the early Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b mujtahids known as the \u201cAsh\u0101b al-Wuj\u016bh,\u201d al-Juwayn\u012b (419 \u2013 478 H), al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b (450 \u2013 505 H), Ilkiy\u0101 al-Harr\u0101s\u012b (450 \u2013 504), al-Ars\u0101band\u012b al-Hanaf\u012b (d. 512 H), al-J\u012bl\u012b (470 \u2013 541 H), al-M\u0101zir\u012b (453 \u2013 536 H) and Ibn al-Munayyir al-M\u0101lik\u012b (620 \u2013 683 H). Their statements or the opinions transmitted from them will be quoted below.
\nFurthermore, if given the option of selecting any opinion one likes, a person may unknowingly fall into talf\u012bq[3] which is invalid by consensus.[4] Moreover, it may open the door to selecting opinions outside of the established madhhabs, leading to following sh\u0101dhdh[5] opinions, something that has been strongly condemned by the \u2018ulam\u0101\u2019.[6] These further implications have been alluded to, in particular, by al-M\u0101zir\u012b. Hence, the obligation of following a single madhhab is a precautionary measure against these negative repercussions.
\nIf given the option of following any madhhab one wished on different issues, a major inconsistency will arise in a layperson\u2019s juristic methodology. Each Im\u0101m and his madhhab has a distinct methodology and distinct points of reference to earlier proto-madhhabs. If a layperson followed different madhhabs on different issues, it would lead to contradictions in the basic principles on which the rulings are based. For example, if someone followed the Hanaf\u012b madhhab in one ruling which is based on a particular principle and the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b madhhab on another ruling which is based on a contradictory principle, a contradiction will arise in the legal methodology, even though both issues may apparently seem distinct.[7] \u2018All\u0101mah Anwar Sh\u0101h Kashm\u012br\u012b explained this point in his Fayd al-B\u0101r\u012b. A translation of this passage can be found in the appendix below. Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d (476 \u2013 544 H) also mentions this and al-Juwayn\u012b may have alluded to it, as will be discussed below.
\nIt is important to note here that when we speak about the necessity of restricting oneself to a single madhhab, we do not mean the views of only the founder of the madhhab, but the collective input of all the mujtahid scholars of that madhhab. The reason is that the developed madhhab represents the conclusions of one unified pattern or school of juristic thought. The prohibition of taking from multiple mujtahids in the later period, therefore, applies only to inter-madhhab disagreements and not necessarily intra-madhhab divergence. See the statements of Abu l-\u2018Abb\u0101s al-N\u0101tif\u012b (d. 446) and Ibn Hamd\u0101n al-Hanbal\u012b (603 \u2013 695 H) quoted below.[8] Furthermore, the ruling under discussion applies to normal circumstances. In exceptional cases, where there is extreme difficulty in acting on the dictates of one madhhab, the ruling may change.
\nIn the first few centuries of Isl\u0101m, before the codification of the major madhhabs, a common person was permitted to adopt the views of different mujtahids on different issues. In this period, non-mujtahids were generally limited in the number of mujtahids they had access to and limited in the resources at their disposal for attaining firm knowledge of the view of a particular mujtahid on a certain issue of jurisprudence. As a result, the laypeople of this time were not able to seek out the opinions of scholars who held the easiest opinions on different issues.[9] In other words, unlike the situation in the later period, a layperson of this time would not generally be aware that there are multiple differing opinions on a particular issue. On the contrary, when he receives a verdict, that may be the first and only opinion he finds on that issue.
\nFurthermore, a layperson would normally refer to the mujtahids of a particular town, like Makkah, Mad\u012bnah or K\u016bfah.[10] Scholars belonging to a particular town were generally unified in the broad contours of their juristic methodology. As a consequence, a layman would not be subject to a great degree of inconsistency in legal opinions and methodology even if he were to ask multiple mujtahids. The permissibility of adopting the views of multiple mujtahids was, moreover, based on necessity. Laypeople generally lacked access to a single mujtahid or school for verdicts on all issues of jurisprudence. Hence, to restrict them to a single mujtahid would not have been possible. Im\u0101m al-Juwayn\u012b and others have made reference to this point. In the present time too, if it is extremely difficult to follow one madhhab due to lack of access to all positions of the school or extreme ignorance, the same rule will apply.
\nAfter the codification of madhhabs, it became necessary for a non-mujtahid to adopt one madhhab, and follow it in all its rulings. The layperson in this time in most places of the Muslim world would be exposed to the known opinions of the different madhhabs. Hence, giving legitimacy to adopt the view of any madhhab on any issue would lead to great inconsistency in the juristic methodology of a muqallid. The potential for selecting the easier opinions and playing with d\u012bn became much more real. At this stage, a muqallid was exposed to multiple opinions in single issues, as opposed to the earlier period when the laypeople were generally not exposed to multiple opinions on single issues. Hence, giving him the option to choose between them will free him of religious obligation (takl\u012bf), and allow him to select opinions based on his desires. Moreover, a muqallid is only qualified to assess which madhhab he feels is in general superior. He does not have the ability to adjudicate between them in individual issues. Hence, as al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b explicitly mentions, and others have suggested, the only reason why a muqallid would follow multiple mujtahids in the later period is in following his desires (tashahh\u012b), even if he does not realise it.
\nFinally, it is necessary to have conviction that the madhhab one follows is correct, as stated by Fakhr al-D\u012bn Muhammad ibn Mahm\u016bd al-Hanaf\u012b (d. ca. 570 H) and others. This is achieved by accepting the words of trusted scholars or based on widespread recognition of the madhhab or other such indications, as mentioned in the statement of Im\u0101m al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b quoted below. The reason for this obligation is that the rules of Shar\u012b\u2018ah depend on one\u2019s belief in their veracity. If one is in doubt or does not have conviction that what he is following is correct, the rules of Shar\u012b\u2018ah cannot correctly be implemented.
\nAccording to the scholars of juristic theory, the correct view in a point of ijtih\u0101d\u012b difference is in reality only one, although all mujtahids are on a right path and are rewarded for their ijtih\u0101d; and they, as well as their followers, will be excused for any error in ijtih\u0101d that falls within the parameters of legitimate disagreement. Hence, one must feel confident that the path he has chosen, i.e. his madhhab, is correct in relation to the others, which he believes are incorrect on the points where they differ with his madhhab, while acknowledging the possibility that the reverse may be true.
\nStatements from the Early Scholars of the Hanaf\u012b School
\nOne of the principles of fatwa in the Hanaf\u012b school is that, in the absence of a clear ruling from the founders of the madhhab, i.e. Im\u0101m Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah and his direct disciples, the fatwa of the early mujtahids in the school[11] is binding[12]. On the issue at hand, the ruling only became applicable after the codification of the madhhabs, when a new situation presented itself to the common Muslims, i.e. access to the conclusions of multiple recognised mujtahids following distinct legal methodologies on most issues of jurisprudence. The early mujtahids of the Hanaf\u012b madhhab from this period clearly obligated adherence to a single madhhab in all its rulings. Hence, the views of later scholars of the madhhab like Ibn al-Hum\u0101m (d. 861 H) and Ibn Nujaym (d. 969) will be disregarded.
\nThe following are some of these statements:
\nFakhr al-Qud\u0101t Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Ab\u016b Bakr Arsabandi (d. 512)[13] said:
\n\u201cIf the truth was multiple, it would be allowed for a muqallid to make taql\u012bd of this mujtahid once and taql\u012bd of another at another time, so this would be premising the religion on desire, which is ugly\u2026And those who say the truth is one, consider it necessary for the layperson to follow one Im\u0101m \u2013 whose position according to him is that he is the most learned based on the evidence of inspection \u2013 and he does not oppose him in anything based on his personal whim.\u201d (Taqw\u012bm Us\u016bl al-Fiqh, D\u0101r al-Nu\u2018m\u0101n lil \u2018Ul\u016bm, 2:868)[14]
\nIn this statement, al-Ars\u0101band\u012b is refuting the Mu\u2018tazil\u012b belief that the truth in an issue open to differences of ijtih\u0101d is multiple. He says that this would entail the layperson is allowed to follow different mujtahids which would be basing religion on desire (and not on religious obligation). Hence, there is a clear indication in this passage that the reason why one must adhere to a single madhhab is that to do otherwise would entail basing religion on desire. The reason why giving such an option to a muqallid entails basing the religion on desire has been articulated by al-Ars\u0101band\u012b\u2019s Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b contemporary, Im\u0101m al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b, in the passage that will be quoted from him further below. In brief, the limit of a muqallid\u2019s ijtih\u0101d is to determine that one madhhab appears superior to the other. Beyond that, the muqallid does not have the capacity to adjudicate between the madhhabs on individual points of difference. Hence, the only reason he would follow one madhhab in some rulings and another in other rulings is in following his desires (even if he does not realise it or believe so).
\nThereafter, al-Ars\u0101band\u012b asserts the scholars who hold that the truth is one \u2013 meaning, the scholars whose view we subscribe to \u2013 believe that it is necessary for the layperson to follow one Im\u0101m. The process by which the layperson selects which Im\u0101m he will follow is to apply his mind and choose the one he feels is most learned. The reason he is to do this is precisely because the truth in an issue of disagreement is one. If one did not have confidence that his madhhab is superior, he would not have belief in its injunctions being correct, and in order for the laws of Shar\u012b\u2018ah to properly function, it is necessary that a person believes they are correct.
\nHence, al-Ars\u0101band\u012b clearly advocates the obligation of adherence to a single madhhab on the basis that giving the layperson the option to choose from different madhhabs on different occasions entails basing the religion on personal whim.
\nAhmad ibn Muhammad ibn \u2018Umar Abu l-\u2018Abb\u0101s al-N\u0101tif\u012b (d. 446)[15] said, commenting on a statement of Im\u0101m al-Hasan ibn Ziy\u0101d (d. 204) regarding the options available to a person \u201cignorant of knowledge\u201d (al-j\u0101hil bi l-\u2018ilm) when presented with multiple different fatwas:
\n\u201cThis is when the questioner is on the madhhab of the people of \u2018Ir\u0101q, and one scholar issues fatwa on the view of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah and another scholar issues fatwa on the view of Ab\u016b Y\u016bsuf and another scholar issues fatwa on the view of Muhammad or the view of Zufar, for he may not opt for the view of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b nor the view of M\u0101lik.\u201d (Mu\u2018\u012bn al-Hukk\u0101m, p. 27)[16]
\nThis statement illustrates that in the fourth century, the Hanaf\u012b scholars spoke in a context of laypeople (who are \u201cignorant of knowledge\u201d) adhering to a single madhhab. Moreover, such people were not allowed to step outside of the madhhab. It also illustrates \u201cadherence to a madhhab\u201d refers to the madhhab as a whole and not to a single person, i.e. a body of scholars belonging to the same juristic school.
\nIt is important to note here that the view of those scholars who spoke about the layperson having a choice to select from multiple different fatwas presented to him does not contradict this paradigm, precisely because, as al-N\u0101tif\u012b mentioned, a layperson is restricted to follow the scholars of his school and is not necessarily restricted to any particular scholar within the school. Hence, this \u201cchoice\u201d refers to the scholars within one\u2019s school and not outside of it.
\nIm\u0101m Muhammad ibn Mahm\u016bd ibn al-Husayn al-Asr\u016bshan\u012b (d. 632)[17] said:
\n\u201cIt is permissible for a man and woman to switch from the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b madhhab to the Hanaf\u012b madhhab and, likewise, vice versa, but in totality. As far as a single issue is concerned, he will not be allowed [to do that]; such that if blood was to come out from a person of the Hanaf\u012b madhhab and it flowed, it will not be permissible for him to pray before performing wud\u016b\u2019, imitating the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b in this issue, and if he prayed before performing wud\u016b\u2019, he will be punished.\u201d[18]
\nFakhr al-D\u012bn Muhammad ibn Mahm\u016bd (d. ca. 570 H)[19] said:
\n\u201cThe slaves are ordered to act on the evidences of Shar\u012b\u2018ah\u2026As far as the generality of the Muslims are concerned, it is not in the capacity of everyone to give preference to evidences and exercise ijtih\u0101d, but he must give preference to an Im\u0101m he considers, and he will be a follower of him. When he contemplates and gives preference to an Im\u0101m over an Im\u0101m, and he considers his path true and right, the view of others becomes invalid for him, so it is not permissible for him to act on their madhhab, just like a mujtahid when an evidence is authentic according to him, he does not act on the remaining [evidences]. It is only such because all people are ordered to act on the command of Allah, whether they are scholars or non-scholars, but the scholars are ordered [to do so] with evidences and precedents and giving preference to one of the evidences, and the commoners are ordered to give preference to the scholars as it is not in their capacity [to do] other than that, in order that everyone will be observant of the command of All\u0101h (Exalted is He).\u201d[20]
\nAlthough he does not state it explicitly, the reason why a non-scholar must select one scholar (i.e. mujtahid) he believes is superior \u2013 although this was not the rule in the earlier period \u2013 is because, as alluded to in this passage, to not do so would negate him being \u201cobservant of the command of All\u0101h\u201d and acting on the \u201cevidences of Shar\u012b\u2018ah\u201d. The only reason this would be so is that if the layperson is free to select whatever opinion he pleases, religious compulsion or obligation would be lifted, and he will become a follower of his personal whim as opposed to the Shar\u012b\u2018ah.
\nFakhr al-D\u012bn also said:
\n\u201cRigidity in the madhhab is w\u0101jib, and fanaticism is impermissible. Rigidity is to act on what is [the of view] his madhhab and he believes it is true and correct, and fanaticism is imprudence and rudeness with respect to the founder of another madhhab, and all that stems from his denigration. That is not permissible, because the Im\u0101ms of the Muslims are in search of what is right and they are on the truth\u201d[21]
\n\u2018Ubayd All\u0101h ibn \u2018Umar ibn \u2018\u012as\u0101, Ab\u016b Zayd al-Dab\u016bs\u012b (368 \u2013 430 H)[22] said:
\n\u201cThe one who regards the truth as multiple [like the Mu\u2018tazilah] establishes choice for the layperson to select [from them] based on his personal whim. And the one who says the truth is one, he makes it necessary for the layperson to follow one Im\u0101m, whose position according to him is that he is the most learned based on the evidence of inspection, and he does not oppose him in anything based on his personal whim.\u201d (Taqw\u012bm al-Adillah, p. 410)[23]
\nAl-Ars\u0101band\u012b\u2019s statement quoted earlier is a rephrasing of this passage of al-Dab\u016bs\u012b. Hence, the same explanation applies.
\nZah\u012br al-D\u012bn al-Margh\u012bn\u0101n\u012b al-Kab\u012br \u2018Al\u012b ibn \u2018Abd al-\u2018Az\u012bz (d. 506) said:
\n\u201cA layperson of the Hanaf\u012b madhhab bleeds and did not repeat purification, imitating al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b with respect to this ruling, that is not permissible for him.\u201d[24]
\nShaykh al-Isl\u0101m Burh\u0101n al-D\u012bn \u2018Al\u012b ibn Ab\u012b Bakr al-Margh\u012bn\u0101n\u012b (511 \u2013 593 H)[25] said:
\n\u201cA [Hanaf\u012b] man suspends divorce of marriage and then he marries a woman and seeks fatwa from [a person belonging to] the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b madhhab, and he issues fatwa according to his madhhab that the divorce has not occurred, it will not be a proof with respect to him.\u201d[26]
\nIf a man were to say, \u201cEvery woman I marry is divorced,\u201d the suspended divorce takes effect in the Hanaf\u012b madhhab but not in the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b madhhab. According to this fatwa of Im\u0101m al-Margh\u012bn\u0101n\u012b, a Hanaf\u012b may not accept the fatwa of a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b who tells him the divorce has not occurred.
\nIn explaining why the early Hanaf\u012b scholars obligated the layman to stick to one madhhab, Ibn al-Hum\u0101m (788 \u2013 861 H) said:
\n\u201cMost probably the compulsions [of adhering to a single madhhab] such as these from them [i.e. the earlier scholars of the school] was to prevent them [i.e. the laypeople] from seeking out the easiest opinions (tatabbu\u2018 al rukhas), for otherwise the layperson will select the view of a mujtahid whose opinion is least burdensome on him.\u201d (Fath al-Qad\u012br)[27]
\nUnfortunately, Ibn al-Hum\u0101m did not agree with this established view and even allowed seeking out the easiest opinions of the madhhabs (tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas)! Tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas is forbidden by consensus, as stated by Ibn \u2018Abd al-Barr.[28] The personal opinion of later scholars cannot override the established consensus of the early scholars. In discussing the position attributed to \u2018Izz al-D\u012bn ibn \u2018Abd al-Sal\u0101m on the permission of tatabbu\u2018 al rukhas, Im\u0101m al-Wanshir\u012bs\u012b al-M\u0101lik\u012b (d. 914 H) said:
\n\u201cIbn Hazm and Abu \u2018Umar [ibn \u2018Abd al-Barr] have related consensus [on the prohibition of tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas], and its basis is transmission, while \u2018Izz al-D\u012bn did not clarify any basis for his fatwa, so it may be an opinion that he held and was isolated in, or a consequence of [his] opinion which is what is apparent from the force of his speech. Whatever it may be, it is an innovated view after an earlier consensus, so it is rejected (b\u0101til) due to its implication of imputing error on the ummah, and imputing error on them is prohibited as established in the principles of Fiqh.\u201d[29]
\nWe will also see from some of the statements of early Im\u0101ms that following the codification of the madhhabs, there was consensus that a layperson must adhere to a single madhhab. Hence, this early consensus too may not be superseded by the view of some later scholars.
\nFrom these quotes from the early authorities of the madhhab, we learn that the official Hanaf\u012b position is that a layperson must stick to a single madhhab, believing all its rulings are correct, and he may not switch madhhabs on single issues. The view of Ibn al-Hum\u0101m and subsequent scholars in opposition to this cannot override the established position of the madhhab. \u2018All\u0101mah Q\u0101sim ibn Qutl\u016bbugh\u0101 (802 \u2013 879 H) said: \u201cThe researches of our teacher [Ibn al-Hum\u0101m] which are contrary to the madhhab will not be acted upon.\u201d (Sharh \u2018Uq\u016bd Rasm al-Muft\u012b, p. 35)
\nOne final point we will mention here is that in the early Hanaf\u012b school, some scholars mentioned an exception to this rule, which is that a Hanaf\u012b muqallid may accept the fatwa of a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b mufti in the case of the suspended divorce. However, \u2018All\u0101mah Ibr\u0101h\u012bm ibn Husayn B\u012br\u012b al-Makk\u012b (d. 1099), the Hanaf\u012b mufti of Makkah, has explained in a treatise on this subject, called Gh\u0101yat al-Tahq\u012bq f\u012b \u2018Adami Jaw\u0101z al-Talf\u012bq fi l-Taql\u012bd \u2013 in which he addresses a number of other such doubts \u2013, that this is not an example of leaving the madhhab nor is it an exception to the rule. This is because al-Z\u0101hid\u012b (d. 658 H) reported that the \u201cSh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b view\u201d in this example is an opinion transmitted from Im\u0101m Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shayb\u0101n\u012b, and many of the early mujtahids from Khaw\u0101rizm would issue fatwa on it.
\nIn brief, there is nothing in the recorded views of the early mujtahid scholars of the madhhab that upsets the paradigm we have presented.
\nStatements from the Early Scholars of the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b School
\nIm\u0101m al-Haramayn, Abu l-Ma\u2018\u0101li \u2018Abd al-Malik ibn Ab\u012b Muhammad al- Juwayn\u012b (417 \u2013 478 H)[30] said:
\n\u201cIf it is said: Is it permissible for a layperson to subscribe in some juristic rulings to the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b and in some of them to the madhhab of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah, and likewise the madhhab of all the Im\u0101ms in this fashion? If you say: That is permissible, and it is not necessary for anyone to adhere to the founder of a specific madhhab, then there is no need in that case to author this book, because he has no need to recognise the \u201cmore correct\u201d and follow what is right and true [according to him], but he does whatever he wishes according to the madhhab of whomsoever he desires.
\n\u201cThe answer is: We say: It is not permissible for the layperson [to do] what you mentioned. Rather, it is definitely necessary for him to specify a madhhab from these madhhabs, either the madhhab of Al-Shafi\u2018\u012b \u2013 may All\u0101h be pleased with him \u2013 in all cases and subsidiaries, or the madhhab of M\u0101lik or the madhhab of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah or other than them \u2013 the pleasure of All\u0101h be upon them. He may not subscribe to the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b in some of what he desires and the madhhab of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah in the remainder of what he approves, because if we allowed it, that will lead to immense confusion and lack of regulation. Its outcome will be the negation of [religious] obligations and there would be no benefit to the [religious] obligation established on him, since if the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b necessitates the impermissibility of something and the madhhab of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah necessitates the permissibility of that very thing or vice versa, if he wishes he may incline towards permissibility and if he wishes he may incline towards impermissibility, so neither permissibility nor impermissibility would be realised. In this is the negation of obligation and nullification of its benefit and uprooting of its foundation. And that is rejected (b\u0101til).
\n\u201cIf it is said: Was it not that in the era of the Sah\u0101bah, a person was given the option between selecting, in some cases, the madhhab of al-Sidd\u012bq, and in some, the madhhab of al-F\u0101r\u016bq, and likewise with respect to all the Sah\u0101bah in all cases, and they did not prevent him from that? So since this is permissible amongst the Sah\u0101bah, why is it not allowed in our time?
\n\u201cThe answer is that this was only so because the juristic principles of the Sah\u0101bah were not adequate for all cases, comprehensive of all rulings, encompassing all subsidiaries, covering all details, because they laid the groundwork, founded principles, paved the foundations and did not dedicate themselves to deriving subsidiaries and elaborating the details. Hence, the madhhab of Ab\u016b Bakr was not adequate for all cases, and likewise the madhhab of all Sah\u0101bah, so because of necessity, it was permitted for muqallids to follow Ab\u016b Bakr in some cases and in that which his opinion was not found, to follow al-F\u0101r\u016bq. As for this era of ours, the madhhabs of the Im\u0101ms are adequate and encompassing of all, because there is no case that occurs except that you find it in the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b or in the madhhab of other than him, either explicitly or by derivation, so there is no necessity to follow two Im\u0101ms together.\u201d (Mugh\u012bth al-Khalq, 13-16)[31]
\nThis is a very explicit passage showing the reason for the difference between pre and post codification of the madhhabs.
\nAl-Juwayn\u012b mentions that, if allowed to follow more than one madhhab, it will lead to two things: one is immense confusion and the other is lack of regulation. It is possible that by \u201cimmense confusion\u201d there could be an allusion to the inconsistency in juristic methodology that would arise if a layperson followed multiple madhhabs. This is supported by his reference to the \u201cprinciples\u201d of the Sah\u0101bah which he states were insufficient for all juristic issues. On the other hand, the principles of the codified madhhabs were complete and applied to more or less all juristic issues. It is because of the insufficiency of the methodologies of the Sah\u0101bah that, out of necessity, the layperson was permitted to accept rulings from multiple mujtahids.
\n\u201cLack of regulation\u201d refers to, as al-Juwayn\u012b elaborated, the removal of religious obligation, by giving the legally obligated individual the option to choose between different legal rulings on the same issue.
\nMoreover, al-Juwayn\u012b is emphatic in this ruling, saying it is \u201cdefinitely\u201d (hatman) obligatory on the layperson to adopt a single madhhab, and the repercussions of saying otherwise is something that is outright rejected (b\u0101til). Scholars who in the present time hold the same strict stance, therefore, are fully justified in doing so.
\nRecording the position of Shams al-Isl\u0101m Abu l-Hasan \u2018Al\u012b ibn Muhammad Ilkiy\u0101 al-Harr\u0101s\u012b (450 \u2013 504 H)[32], Im\u0101m al-Nawaw\u012b said:
\n\u201cIf [a layperson] is not ascribed [to a madhhab], it is premised on two views, which Ibn Barh\u0101n related, in that: Is it necessary for the layperson to adopt a particular madhhab, adopting its dispensations and strictures?…The second [view] is it is necessary for him. Abu l-Hasan al-Ilkiy\u0101 positively asserted it, and this applies to all who have not reached the level of ijtih\u0101d from the jurists and the adherents of all sciences. Its basis is that if following any madhhab he wished was permissible, it will lead to collecting the dispensations of the madhhabs, in following his desire, and choosing between permission and prohibition, obligation and permissibility, and that will lead to relinquishing the burden of responsibility; as distinguished from the first period [of Isl\u0101m] because the madhhabs incorporating laws related to all outcomes were not refined. Based on this, it is necessary for one to strive to choose a specific madhhab he will follow. We will pave for him a simple path he should follow when striving to do so. Thus, we say: Firstly, he may not follow in this mere desire and inclination towards what he found his forefathers upon; and he may not adopt the madhhab of any of the Im\u0101ms of the Sahabah (Allah be pleased with them) and others from the early ones, even though they were more learned and higher in rank than those who came after them because they did not devote themselves entirely to compiling knowledge and outlining its principles and its branches, so none of them had a refined, codified and approved madhhab, and only those who came after them from the Im\u0101ms who were affiliated to the madhhabs of the Sah\u0101bah and the T\u0101bi\u2018in took up this task, undertaking the responsibility of laying down the laws pertaining to all happenings before they occurred, and attempting to clarify their principles and branches, like M\u0101lik, Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah and others.\u201d (Al-Majm\u016b\u2018 Sharh al-Muhadhdhab, 1:93)[33]
\nThe position of Ilkiy\u0101 al-Harr\u0101s\u012b presented here is similar to that of his teacher, al-Juwayn\u012b. However, here there is the addition that the layperson is obligated to select the madhhab he will follow based on a personal examination of which madhhab he feels is superior. As mentioned earlier, the reason for this obligation is the necessity to have firm belief in the correctness of the legal injunctions one is following.
\nHujjat al-Isl\u0101m al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b, Ab\u016b H\u0101mid Muhammad ibn Muhammad (450 \u2013 505 H)[34] said while discussing the conditions for condemning a wrong (munkar):
\n\u201cThe fourth condition is that its being munkar is known without ijtih\u0101d. So all that is in a place of ijtih\u0101d, there is no accountability therein. Hence, a Hanaf\u012b may not condemn a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b for eating a lizard and hyena and [the animal over which] saying bismill\u0101h was left out, and a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b may not condemn a Hanaf\u012b for drinking non-intoxicating nab\u012bdh and taking inheritance of distant relatives and residing in a house which he acquired by [the right of] pre-emption of a neighbour, and other such [examples] from the places of ijtih\u0101d.
\n\u201cYes, if a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b sees a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b drinking nab\u012bdh and marrying without a guardian and [thereafter] engaging in intercourse with his wife, then this is in a place of consideration. The most apparent [view] is that he has [the right of] taking him to task and rebuking [him]; since none of the scholars have opined that it is permissible for a mujtahid to act on the dictates of the ijtih\u0101d of other than him; nor that the one whose judgement in taql\u012bd led him to a man he considers the best of the scholars that it is permissible for him to select the madhhab of other than him, choosing from the madhhabs the most pleasing of them to him. Rather, it is incumbent on every muqallid to follow his Im\u0101m in every detail. Thus, his opposition to [his] Im\u0101m is by agreement of the scholars a munkar, and he is sinful in opposing [him].\u201d (Ihy\u0101\u2019 \u2018Ul\u016bm al-D\u012bn, 2:321)[35]
\nIn this passage, al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b has quoted consensus that a muqallid must follow his Im\u0101m who he believes is superior to the other Im\u0101ms. Moreover, by mentioning that he may not \u201cchoose from the madhhabs the most pleasing of them to him,\u201d there is an indication that the reason for this restriction is that it would lead to tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas and following desires.
\nAl-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b further said in the same passage, rejecting the contrary view:
\n\u201cThe view of the one who opines that it is permissible for every muqallid to choose from the madhhabs whatever he wishes is not given consideration. Probably it is not authentic that any opiner opined it at all. So this is a view that is not established, and if established, it is given no consideration.\u201d (Ihy\u0101\u2019 \u2018Ul\u016bm al-D\u012bn, 1:322)[36]
\nIn this passage, it is clear that what al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b meant by the muqallid\u2019s \u201cIm\u0101m\u201d in the previous passage is his madhhab, and not the individual Im\u0101m per se. Furthermore, al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b knows of no disagreement on the impermissibility of selecting from all the madhhabs as one wishes. Rather, it is necessary to restrict oneself to a single madhhab. And finally, he says, even if anyone were to have disagreed, his opinion is rejected.
\nIn a letter to Q\u0101d\u012b Ab\u016b Bakr al-M\u0101lik\u012b (d. 543 H), Im\u0101m al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b said:
\n\u201cIt is not permissible for the muqallid of a scholar to choose the most pleasing of the madhhabs to him and the most agreeable to his temperament. He must make taql\u012bd of his Im\u0101m who he believes to have the correct and right madhhab in relation to other than him, and follow him in all that comes and goes. Hence, it is not permissible for a M\u0101lik\u012b to switch to the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b unless it overpowers his mind that its opinions are more correct. In that case, it is necessary to make taql\u012bd of him in all juristic rulings. If it is not that, then there is no motive for him to oppose [his madhhab] except whim, just as it is not permissible for a mujtahid to oppose the conclusions that his ijtih\u0101d reached\u2026
\n\u201cIt is necessary for every Muslim to follow what overwhelms his mind that it is the most correct in acts of devotion. This condition in the muqallid is achieved by considering what his Im\u0101m \u2013 whose opinion being sound has overwhelmed his mind \u2013 is upon as correct; just as knowledge of the best of doctors in the lands is achieved by the one who is ignorant of it. This is either through hearing from the mouths [of people] or observing most people [going to] a particular person, or his hearing two people or one person whose assessment is good [according to him] and his heart feels comfortable with him; like if he were to hear from his parents the excellence of M\u0101lik and al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b, and he assents to it and his heart feels comfortable with it. Hence, it is not permissible [for him] to oppose his assessment.
\n\u201cIf he were to say: \u2018My assessment in other than this legal case is that the one I made taql\u012bd of is wrong,\u2019 muqallids are not entitled to this. His ijtih\u0101d in individual issues is an error and it is as though in his mind he knows that which his Im\u0101m does not know in other than this issue [in which he made taql\u012bd of him], and this is ignorance! As for following al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b in an issue in which he opposed a Sah\u0101b\u012b, it is necessary to have the assumption of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b that he did not oppose him except for an evidence stronger than the madhhab of the Sah\u0101b\u012b. If this was not assumed, he would ascribe to al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b ignorance of the position of the Sah\u0101b\u012b, and this is impossible. This is the reason for giving preference to the madhhab of the later ones [i.e. the four Im\u0101ms] over the earlier ones [i.e. the Sah\u0101bah], despite knowledge of the superiority of their knowledge over theirs; as the earlier ones heard had\u012bths solitarily and dispersed in the lands and their fatwas and decrees differed in the lands, and sometimes had\u012bths reached them and they withheld from what they opined and decreed. In the first era, they did not get involved in collecting hadiths due to their occupation with jih\u0101d and laying down [the foundations of] the religion. Then when the people reached [the time of] the successors of the T\u0101bi\u2018\u012bn, they found Isl\u0101m settled and established, so they diverted their attention towards collecting had\u012bths from the furthest lands and places by means of journeys and travels. Thus, the later ones inspected after encompassing all the proofs of the laws, and they did not contravene what was opined in the earlier [period] except for an evidence stronger than it…\u201d (Al-Mi\u2018y\u0101r al-Mu\u2018rib, 11:164-5)[37]
\nThis is an explicit passage that according to al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b, a muqallid must make taql\u012bd of the madhhab of his Im\u0101m in all rulings. He may not follow one madhhab in some rulings and another in other rulings, and al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b is clear that the only reason that a muqallid would do this is in following his desires. The limit of a muqallid\u2019s ijtih\u0101d is to determine that one madhhab appears superior to the other. Beyond that, the muqallid does not have the capacity to adjudicate between the madhhabs on individual points of difference. Hence, he must choose one madhhab he feels is superior and adhere to it completely, as the only reason for shifting in individual rulings would be vain desire (even if the muqallid does not realise it).
\nSh\u0101fi\u2018 ibn \u2018Abd al-Rash\u012bd Ab\u016b \u2018Abdill\u0101h al-J\u012bl\u012b (470 \u2013 541 H)[38] is referred to in the following passage of al-Zarkash\u012b:
\n\u201cIf [a muqallid] adhered to a specific madhhab, like [the madhhab of] M\u0101lik or al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b, and he believed in its superiority in general, is it permissible to oppose his Im\u0101m in some juristic rulings and select the opinion of another mujtahid besides him? In this are [the following] views: First, prohibition. Al-J\u012bl\u012b positively asserted this in al-I\u2018j\u0101z, because the view of every Im\u0101m is independent in individual cases, so there is no need to shift except following desires, and due to what is in it of following dispensations and playing with religion.\u201d[39]
\nThere is a clear indication in this statement that the only reason the earlier generations did not restrict themselves to a single mujtahid is because there was a need: the rulings of each mujtahid on all juristic issues were not known, making it necessary to refer to multiple mujtahids. Al-Juwayn\u012b was quoted earlier making the same point.
\nFurthermore, the reason for restricting oneself to a single madhhab, i.e. the potential of following desires, is also alluded to in this statement. Although al-J\u012bl\u012b does not say that a layperson must at the outset select a madhhab, but since his reasoning is that to have the option to select from multiple madhhabs bears the consequence of following desires and playing with the d\u012bn, it would entail that his opinion is it is necessary for a layperson to choose one madhhab he will follow in all its rulings. Saf\u012b al-D\u012bn al-Hind\u012b (644 \u2013 715 H) said after mentioning this very reasoning:
\n\u201cThis evidence demands that it is necessary for the layperson to subscribe to a specific madhhab at the outset.\u201d[40]
\nMoreover, it is also clear from this passage that al-J\u012bl\u012b saw no reason why a muqallid would shift from one madhhab to another \u2013 when there was no dire need as in the early period \u2013 besides following vain desire (tashahh\u012b).
\nAl-Qaff\u0101l al-Marwaz\u012b, Ab\u016b Bakr \u2018Abdull\u0101h ibn Ahmad\u2019s (327 \u2013 417 H)[41] opinion is mentioned in the following passage from al-Nawaw\u012b\u2019s Sharh al-Muhadhdhab:
\n\u201cShaykh [Ab\u016b Muhammad al-Juwayn\u012b] said: It will be considered if he [i.e. the layperson] is ascribed to a madhhab, we will premise it on two views which al-Q\u0101d\u012b Husayn related in that the layperson does he have a madhhab or not?…The second, and this is the most authentic according to al-Qaff\u0101l, is that he does have a madhhab, so it is not permissible for him to oppose it.\u201d (al-Majm\u016b\u2018 Sharh al-Muhadhdhab, 1:93)[42]
\nIn explaining al-Qaff\u0101l\u2019s view, Ibn al-Sal\u0101h states:
\n\u201cBecause he believes that the madhhab which he is ascribed to is the truth and he gave it preference over other than it, so he must follow through with the demand of this belief of his. Hence, if he is a Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b he may not seek fatwa from a Hanaf\u012b, nor oppose his Im\u0101m.\u201d[43]
\nThis proves that according to al-Qaff\u0101l once a muqallid has selected a madhhab, he must adhere to it in all its rulings.
\nThe \u201cAsh\u0101b al-Wuj\u016bh\u201d were major early mujtahids in the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b madhhab, generally having lived between the third and fifth centuries. Al-Nawaw\u012b describes them as follows: \u201cA mujtahid restricted to the madhhab of his Im\u0101m, independent in establishing his viewpoints with evidence, although he does not go beyond the foundations of his Im\u0101m and his principles in his evidences. His condition is knowledge of jurisprudence and its principles and the detailed evidences of laws, and insight into the methodology of [drawing] legal analogies and [determining] the ratio legis. [He is] fully trained in extraction and derivation, capable of linking what is not explicitly mentioned by his Im\u0101m to his principles.\u201d Al-Nawaw\u012b then said: \u201cThis is a description of our Ash\u0101b, the Ash\u0101b al-Wuj\u016bh.\u201d (Sharh al-Muhadhdhab, p. 76) Some examples of Ash\u0101b al-Wuj\u016bh are: Ab\u016b \u2018Al\u012b al-Husayn ibn S\u0101lih ibn Khayr\u0101n (d. 320 H), Ab\u016b Yahy\u0101 Zakariyy\u0101 ibn Ahmad al-Balkh\u012b (d. 330 H), Z\u0101hir ibn Ahmad al-Sarakhs\u012b (d. 389 H) and Ab\u016b Bakr al-Awdan\u012b (d. 385 H).
\nAl-Nawaw\u012b said:
\n\u201cIf [a layperson] is not ascribed [to a madhhab], it is premised on two views, which Ibn Barh\u0101n related from our Ash\u0101b, in that: Is it necessary for the layperson to adopt a particular madhhab?…The second it is necessary for him. Abu l-Hasan al-Ilkiy\u0101 positively asserted it, and this applies to all who have not reached the level of ijtih\u0101d from the jurists and the adherents of all sciences. [This is so] in order that he does not collect the dispensations of the madhhabs; as distinguished from the first era when the madhhabs were not codified such that their dispensations may be collected. Based on this, it is necessary for one to strive to choose a specific madhhab he will follow in everything. He may not adopt a madhhab based merely on whim, nor with what he found his forefathers upon. This is the statement of the Ash\u0101b.\u201d (Rawdat al-T\u0101lib\u012bn, 8:101)[44]
\nIn explaining the view of the Ash\u0101b, al-Nawaw\u012b clearly mentions that in the early period the laypeople were not able to seek out the easiest opinions of the mujtahids, precisely because their madhhabs were not codified.
\nIn short, there is very strong support from within the early Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b school for the paradigm of taql\u012bd we have proposed in the introduction. Furthermore, Im\u0101m al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b effectively quoted consensus on this ruling, and as mentioned earlier, the disagreement of later scholars cannot override the binding consensus of the earlier jurists.
\nStatements from the Early Scholars of the M\u0101lik\u012b School
\nShaykh al-Isl\u0101m Q\u0101d\u012b Abu l-Fadl \u2018Iy\u0101d ibn M\u016bs\u0101 (476 \u2013 544 H)[45] said:
\n\u201cKnow \u2013 may All\u0101h give us and you success \u2013 that the ruling of the one devoted to the orders of All\u0101h (Exalted is He) and His prohibitions, obedient to the Shar\u012b\u2018ah of His Prophet (All\u0101h bless him and grant him peace), is to seek acquaintance of this and that with which he will render devotion [to All\u0101h] and that which he will perform and will omit, and [that which] is necessary for him and forbidden, and [that which] is permissible for him and encouraged, from the Book of All\u0101h and the Sunnah of His Prophet, for they are the two foundations which the Shar\u012b\u2018ah is known only by means of and All\u0101h is rendered devotion only by knowledge of.
\n\u201cFurthermore, the consensus of the Muslims is built upon them, and dependent on them. Thus it cannot be found nor convened, except [based] on them, either from a text which they knew and then did not transmit or from a deduction based on them \u2013 based on the view that a consensus via the route of ijtih\u0101d is valid.
\n\u201cAll of this will not be complete except after making knowledge of them, and the means and tools allowing him to reach it, a reality, in terms of transmission and reason, and pursuit of it, collection and retention, and knowledge of what is sound from the traditions and famous, and acquaintance of how to gain understanding, and that by which he will gain understanding, in terms of knowledge of the outward of the words, which is knowledge of Arabic and language, and knowledge of their meanings and the meanings of the intent of Shar\u012b\u2018ah and its objectives, and the clear directive of speech, its outward and its purport and all its angles, which is termed \u201cknowledge of the principles of jurisprudence\u201d, most of which is connected to knowledge of Arabic and the objectives of speech and conversation, and then [knowledge of] the source of making a [legal] analogy of what has not been explicitly stated on what has been explicitly stated, drawing attention to the presence of the legal reason in it or its resemblance to it.
\n\u201cAll of this requires time, while devotion [to All\u0101h and Shar\u012b\u2018ah] is necessary immediately. Moreover, those who have reached this road, which is the road of ijtih\u0101d and ruling by it in the Shar\u012b\u2018ah, are few and fewer than few after the first era and the righteous Salaf and the praiseworthy three generations.
\n\u201cSince this is so, it is necessary for the one who has not reached this position from the legally responsibility individuals (muakkallaf\u012bn) to receive what he will render devotion with and which he was legally obligated with, in terms of the tasks of Shar\u012b\u2018ah, from those who transmit it to him, and make him aware of it, and [who] he depends on in his transmission, knowledge and assessment. This is taql\u012bd, and the rank of the common people, nay most of them [i.e. people], is this!
\n\u201cSince this is so, it is necessary to make taql\u012bd of a scholar that is dependable upon in that, and when the scholars become abundant, then the most learned.
\n\u201cThis is the share of the muqallid in terms of ijtih\u0101d (exercising judgement) for his religion. The muqallid will not abandon the most learned and go towards other than him, even if he [too] is engaged in knowledge. Thus, he will ask about that of which he does not have knowledge until he knows, just as All\u0101h (Exalted is He) said: \u2018Ask the people of knowledge if you do not know.\u2019 And the Prophet (All\u0101h bless him and grant him peace) ordered imitation of the caliphs after him and his companions, and indeed the Prophet (All\u0101h bless him and grant him peace) dispatched his companions amongst the people to teach them the understanding of religion, and teach them what is prescribed upon them, and All\u0101h (Exalted is He) encouraged all of them, that from each group a party of them go forth in order to gain understanding in the religion and warn their people when they return to them. (Qur\u2019\u0101n, 9:122)
\n\u201cSince this matter is necessary and inevitable, and the most worthy and deserving of those who the ignorant layperson and the novice worshipper and the student seeking guidance and the one seeking understanding in the religion of All\u0101h make taql\u012bd of are the jurists of the companions of the Messenger of All\u0101h (All\u0101h bless him and grant him peace), who took knowledge from him and knew the reasons for the revelation of the commands and prohibitions, and the functions of the laws, and the contexts of his (upon him peace) speech, and they witnessed the indications of it, and they spoke directly in most of them with the Prophet (upon him peace), and they asked him about them, along with what they were upon of vast knowledge and acquaintance with the meanings of speech and illumination of hearts and expansion of breasts, so they were indisputably the most learned of the Im\u0101ms, and the worthiest of them to make taql\u012bd of, but they did not speak about the legal cases except in the small number [of them] that arose, nor were juristic rulings derived by them, and they did not speak about the Shar\u012b\u2018ah except of principles and events, and most of their occupation was in acting on what they knew, and defence of the territory of religion, and consolidating the Shar\u012b\u2018ah of the Muslims. Moreover, there is disagreement amongst them in some of what they spoke of, which will leave the muqallid in confusion, and will force him to contemplate and have reservation.
\n\u201cDerivation [of subsidiary rulings], drawing results and elaborating the [points of] discussion in that which is expected to occur only came after them. Thus, the T\u0101bi\u2018\u016bn came, and they analysed their disagreement and they built on their foundations, and then after them scholars arose from the successors of the T\u0101bi\u2018\u016bn, and events became numerous, legal cases took place, and the fatwas on them became diverse, so they gathered the views of all [scholars], and they preserved their jurisprudence, and they researched their disagreement and their agreement, and they were cautious of the matter becoming dispersed and the disagreement going out of control, so they exercised their reasoning in collecting the traditions and regulating the principles, and they were asked and they answered, and they founded principles and paved foundations and derived legal rulings based on them, and they authored for the people works on this and arranged them into chapters, and each of them acted in accordance with what was inspired to him and he was granted accordance to [do], so the knowledge of principles and subsidiaries, disagreement and agreement, reached its peak with them, and they drew analogy on what reached them of what it indicates to or it resembles. May All\u0101h be pleased with them all and give them the full reward for their efforts.
\n\u201cThus, it is stipulated for the lay muqallid and the novice seeker of knowledge to refer in [his] taql\u012bd to these [mujtahids] for the texts of his legal cases, and refer to them in what is unclear [to him] therefrom, due to the encompassment of the science of Shar\u012b\u2018ah and its revolving around them, and their excellence in analysing the madhhabs of those who came before them, and their sufficing of that for those who came after them.
\n\u201cHowever, taql\u012bd of all of them will not be possible in most legal cases and the majority of rulings, due to their disagreement based on the different principles on which they built [the rulings]. And it is not correct for a muqallid to make taql\u012bd of whosoever he wishes from them based on whim and chance, or based on what he finds the people of his vicinity and his family upon.
\n\u201cThus, his share here of ijtih\u0101d is analysing the most learned of them, and gaining recognition of the worthiest of the totality of them for taql\u012bd, so that the layperson will incline in his deeds to his fatwas, and will rely in his acts of piety on what he opined…It is not permissible for him to trespass in consulting those whose madhhab he does not adhere to for fatwa, since some of the elders said: \u2018The Im\u0101m for the one who adopts his madhhab is like the Prophet (upon him peace) with his ummah \u2013 it is not permissible for him to oppose him.\u2019 This is correct in terms of reasoning, and in what we elaborated, its soundness is manifest to the people of insight.
\n\u201c\u2026Once this introduction is established, we say: The consensus of the Muslims in all places of earth has occurred on taql\u012bd in this fashion, and adherence of them, and studying their madhhabs and not those before them, while acknowledging the excellence of those before them and their priority and their superior knowledge, but the problems [in following them] are as we described and the sufficiency of what they selected from them is as we mentioned earlier.
\n\u201c\u2026The people today in all the lands of the world have evolved into five madhhabs: M\u0101lik\u012bs, Hanaf\u012bs, Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012bs, Hanbal\u012bs and D\u0101w\u016bd\u012bs \u2013 and they are known as Z\u0101hir\u012bs. Thus, it is incumbent on a student of knowledge and the one wishing to gain acquaintance of what is true and correct to recognise the most worthy of them of taql\u012bd, in order to depend on his madhhab and tread his path in seeking jurisprudential knowledge.\u201d (59 \u2013 67)[46]
\nThe important points to note from this lengthy passage of Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d are, firstly, that he notes most people in his time were muqallids; secondly, the reason it is not possible to follow the madhhab of a single Sah\u0101b\u012b is that no Sah\u0101b\u012b has a unified madhhab relating to all issues of jurisprudence; thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d identifies the reason why it is necessary to adhere to one madhhab as the different principles of each madhhab on which they based their rulings \u2013 following all of them, therefore, will result in a contradiction in the outcome; finally, he relates consensus on this type of taql\u012bd i.e. the obligation of adhering to a single madhhab one believes to be superior to the others.
\nIm\u0101m al-M\u0101zir\u012b, Ab\u016b \u2018Abdill\u0101h Muhammad ibn \u2018Al\u012b al-Tam\u012bm\u012b (453 \u2013 536 H)[47] said:
\n\u201cWhen a question came to me from T\u016bnis \u2013 All\u0101h protect it \u2013 when a man who a long time ago had studied part of the science of Us\u016bl under me had married a woman and divorced her thrice, and then considered her permissible [for him], after a man solemnised [the marriage] with her and did not have intercourse with her, so a question about him came to me from the judge and the jurists of the city, I reprimanded him excessively, and I went into excess, until he thought I gave them permission to punish him! I mentioned that this is a door, if opened, repercussions would occur in terms of religion and consequences in terms of adherence to the laws [of Shar\u012b\u2018ah].
\n\u201c\u2026That which I believe of the resolute religion is that it is prohibited to exit the madhhab of M\u0101lik and his companions as a protection against the path [towards the negative repercussions]. If this was legalised, a man would say: I will sell one dinar for two dinars due to what was narrated from Ibn \u2018Abb\u0101s and then someone will come who will say: I marry a woman and I make her private part lawful without a guardian nor witnesses in imitation of Ab\u016b Han\u012bfah with respect to the guardian and of M\u0101lik with respect to witnesses, and I will marry her for a meagre price in imitation of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b. This is the greatest opportunity for disaster. This practice would be severed in the earlier times, despite the scrupulousness of its people and their fear of their honour and their religion. So what of when the matter has reached a time wherein its people have fallen short of the conditions of those who came before in such a way that is not hidden to the intelligent. This is a time when it is more suitable to cut off the substances of laxity in religious matters. \u2026You see our imams who would fear All\u0101h (Great and Glorious is He) exaggerate in condemning laxity in the matter of religion and leaving one madhhab for another madhhab, due to what it will lead to in terms of corruption.\u201d (Fat\u0101wa l-M\u0101zir\u012b, al-D\u0101r al-T\u016bnisiyyah, 151-3)
\nIn this passage, al-M\u0101zir\u012b explains the importance of regulatory measures to keep laypeople in check from falling into unwanted consequences. Two such consequences he refers to in this passage are: adopting shadhdh opinions, such as Ibn \u2018Abb\u0101s\u2019s opinion of allowing the sale of one dirham for two dirhams on spot; and talf\u012bq as in the example of the marriage that he described made up of the opinions of three different madhhabs.
\nAl-M\u0101zir\u012b also mentions in this passage that scholars had put these measures before his time also. There is in fact a reference to M\u0101lik\u012b scholars restricting the muftis to giving fatwa only on the madhhab of Im\u0101m M\u0101lik as far back as the early third century. Wanshir\u012bs\u012b reports from al-H\u0101rith ibn Misk\u012bn (d. 250 H) and Sahn\u016bn (d. 240 H) that they forbade the muftis of their areas from issuing fatwa on other than the madhhab of M\u0101lik (al-Mi\u2018y\u0101r al-Mu\u2018rib, 12:26). And as mentioned earlier, quoting from Saf\u012b al-D\u012bn al-Hind\u012b, \u201cThis evidence demands that it is necessary for the layperson to subscribe to a specific madhhab at the outset.\u201d
\nStatements from the Hanbal\u012b School
\nNajm al-D\u012bn Ahmad ibn Hamd\u0101n ibn Shab\u012bb al-Harr\u0101n\u012b al-Misr\u012b al-Faq\u012bh (603 \u2013 695 H)[48] said:
\n\u201cIt is necessary for every muqallid to adhere to a specific madhhab in the most famous [view] and not make taql\u012bd of other than its adherents.\u201d (al-Ins\u0101f, 11:194)[49]
\nWith the final clause, \u201cand not make taql\u012bd of other than its adherents,\u201d Ibn Hamd\u0101n clarifies that the obligation is to restrict oneself to the body of scholars represented by the madhhab, and not only the founder of the madhhab.
\nIbn Hamd\u0101n also reproduces the statement of al-Nawaw\u012b quoting from the Ash\u0101b in his famous work on the protocols of fatwa Sifat al-Fatw\u0101 wa l-Muft\u012b wa l-Mustaft\u012b (al-Maktab al-Isl\u0101m\u012b, p 72)
\n\u201cThe Layperson has no Madhhab\u201d?
\nThe statement \u201cthe layman has no madhhab\u201d (al-\u2018\u0101mm\u012b l\u0101 madhhaba lah\u016b) was mentioned by some scholars[50]. This rule applies only to the situation before the codification of madhhabs, as expressed by al-Juwayn\u012b amongst others.
\nN\u0101sir al-D\u012bn Abu l-\u2018Abb\u0101s Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Munayyir al-M\u0101lik\u012b (620 \u2013 683 H)[51] said:
\n\u201cProof dictates [the necessity of] adherence to a specific madhhab after [the codification of the madhhabs of] the four Im\u0101ms not before them. The difference is that the people before the four Im\u0101ms did not codify their madhhabs, nor did the legal cases arise in large numbers upon them, such that the madhhab of each of them may be known in all cases or in most of them. The one who asks fatwa of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b, for example, had no knowledge of what the mufti will say because his madhhab was not well-known in that case, or it did not arise before that so it is inconceivable that [anyone] supported it besides the mind of a specific [mufti]. As for after the madhhabs were understood, codified and became famous, and the dispensation was known from the strictures in every case, then a questioner will not alternate \u2013 when the condition is such \u2013 from madhhab to madhhab except due to an inclination to break away [from responsibility] and seeking ease.\u201d[52]
\nIn this very clear passage, Ibn al-Munayyir explains that before the codification of madhhabs there was little scope to seek out the easiest opinions of the scholars. However, after the codification of the madhhabs, it would be easy to find the easiest opinion on each issue. Thus, at this time, restricting oneself to a single madhhab became necessary, as a regulatory measure. Hence, the rule, \u201cThe layperson has no madhhab\u201d is applicable to the period before the codification of madhhabs.
\nStating this explicitly, Ibn Hajar al-Haytam\u012b from the late Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b school said:
\n\u201cThe claim that the layperson has no madhhab is rejected. Rather, taql\u012bd of a recognised madhhab is necessary for him. That [i.e. the layperson having no madhhab] was before the codification of madhhabs and their settlement.\u201d[53]
\nThe rule \u201cthe layperson has no madhhab\u201d also applies to those situations, times and places where it would be very difficult or even impossible to obligate a layperson to adhere to a single madhhab, due to complete ignorance or lack of access to all the positions of one madhhab. Some of the later scholars have mentioned this.[54]
\nHowever, in normal circumstances, due to the reasons that have been explained, a layperson must adhere to a single madhhab in all its rulings.
\nConclusion
\nThere are strong positions in all four madhhabs on the obligation to restrict oneself to a single madhhab. Major scholars from the fifth century of Hijrah quoted consensus on this ruling. The reasons for the ruling have been explained in detail above, and will be summarised below. The scholars who in the present time strictly uphold this view are, therefore, completely justified in doing so.
\nThere were certainly a number of latter-day scholars that tended towards the view of unrestricted taql\u012bd. The primary reason for this is that some influential scholars supported this opinion after the earlier consensus in opposition to it. Examples include al-Nawaw\u012b, al-Qar\u0101f\u012b, Ibn al-Hum\u0101m and Ibn Taymiyyah. However, as mentioned earlier in the brief discussion on tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas, the personal opinions of later scholars cannot supersede an earlier consensus, nor can they form the basis of the official position of the respective schools when the situation under question has remained unchanged.
\nMoreover, the scholars who give permission for unrestricted taql\u012bd generally accept the consensus on the prohibitions of tatabbu\u2018 al-rukhas, following desires and talf\u012bq. Since it is almost impossible to keep the common people from falling into these patterns, the scholars of the present time who support this view should, based on the principle of closing the avenues to impermissible ends (sadd al-dhar\u0101\u2019i\u2018), put effective measures to avoid these unwanted outcomes. This can only be achieved by limiting them to choose the opinions of a single madhhab.
\nSummary of Main Points
\nBefore the codification of the madhhabs, in approximately the first three centuries of Isl\u0101m, the common Muslim was permitted to accept the opinions of multiple mujtahids.
\nThe reason for this is that the common Muslim did not have access to a complete codified set of laws from any single person or school at this time, so it was not generally possible to follow a single mujtahid or school.
\nBecause different madhhabs with detailed rules on all chapters of jurisprudence were not yet codified or well-known, an opinion the common Muslim was exposed to was probably the only opinion on that issue he would know. Hence, he would rarely have the option to select between different viewpoints on single issues, making it nearly impossible for him to seek out the easiest opinions from amongst the available views of mujtahid scholars and follow his desires.
\nAfter the codification of the madhhabs in approximately the fourth century of Hijrah, it became necessary for a common Muslim to restrict himself to a single madhhab which he believes to be more correct in relation to the other madhhabs
\nThe reasons for this is that:
\nFirstly, each madhhab was comprehensive and complete, dealing with all the subsidiaries of Isl\u0101mic law, so unlike the early period, there was no need to refer to multiple mujtahids or madhhabs
\nSecondly, if given the option to select from the different madhhabs in single issues, the common Muslim would be freed of religious obligation (takl\u012bf) and will be free to base his decisions on his whims and desires, by seeking out the easiest opinion from each school.
\nThirdly, if a layperson follows multiple madhhabs in different rulings, the consequence will be a hotchpotch of legal rulings, many of which are based on conflicting juristic principles, resulting in a methodological contradiction in the outcome, even if not obviously apparent
\nFourthly, a muqallid\u2019s reasoning is limited to investigating which madhhab or mujtahid he feels is superior, and he does not have the right or ability to adjudicate between them on individual issues; thus, if he were to choose from different madhhabs without necessity, it would be based on following desires, even if the muqallid does not realise it or believe so
\nFifthly, given this option, a muqallid may be led to select opinions outside of the established madhhabs that are shadhdh
\nSixthly, a muqallid may not be able to observe the conditions of the different madhhabs he is following in a single case, resulting in talf\u012bq
\nMajor early scholars across all madhhabs before the sixth century of Hijrah have corroborated each of these points, with Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d and al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b having quoted consensus on the obligation of adhering to a single madhhab
\nThe opinion of some later scholars in contravention to this, when the situation has remained the same since the consensus of the early scholars, is rejected
\nSince there is no need to follow multiple madhhabs in this period, and there is a potential for major repercussions \u2013 prohibited by consensus \u2013 if it is permitted, it behooves all scholars to give the verdict of the obligation of restricting one\u2019s taql\u012bd to a single madhhab, on the basis of prudence and practicality, and closing the avenues to unwanted ends
\nWhen some early scholars spoke of a layperson \u201chaving choice\u201d (which was stated even by some of those scholars who obligated restricted taql\u012bd) or \u201chaving no madhhab\u201d, they refer to the times and scenarios where these are applicable, such as:
\nIf a muqallid has not yet selected a madhhab, or is in such a position that he does not have full access to any single madhhab, he may take fatwa from a scholar of any madhhab
\nA muqallid of a particular madhhab in some situations has the choice of accepting different fatwa positions within his school
\nThe layperson in the era before the codification of madhhabs had no madhhab for the reasons outlined earlier
\n\u0633\u0628\u062d\u0646\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0648\u0628\u062d\u0645\u062f\u0643\u060c \u0623\u0634\u0647\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u0644\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0647 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0646\u062a\u060c \u0623\u0633\u062a\u063a\u0641\u0631\u0643 \u0648\u0623\u062a\u0648\u0628 \u0625\u0644\u064a\u0643
\nAppendix
\n\u2018All\u0101mah Anwar Sh\u0101h Kashm\u012br\u012b (1292 \u2013 1352 H) said in Fayd al-B\u0101r\u012b:
\n\u201cIt has not escaped you that Ibn Nujaym in Qad\u0101\u2019 al-Faw\u0101\u2019it and Ibn \u2018\u0100bidin in the introduction to Radd al-Muht\u0101r gave allowance to a dangerous slip, since they allowed an uneducated person who does not know the madhhab of anyone to ask regarding his five Sal\u0101hs from whichever scholar from the scholars of the four madhhabs he wishes, and act on whatever he wishes from their fatwas.
\n\u201cI say:
\n\u201cThis is rejected (b\u0101til), because its consequence is that the uneducated person has no madhhab. Analogy with the matter of iqtid\u0101\u2019 (following an im\u0101m in Sal\u0101h) is invalid, as there is no alternative to following in iqtid\u0101\u2019, as distinguished from acting on the madhhabs, because it is possible for him to restrict himself to a madhhab and follow it in [all] its rulings. As for practising the madhhab of al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b (All\u0101h have mercy on him) in one Sal\u0101h and the madhhab of the Hanaf\u012bs in another Sal\u0101h, this is an improper way, and leads to contradiction, and has no precedent in the religion.
\n\u201cIts explanation is that the rulings of one madhhab are matching with each other. I mean that there is a sequence and connection between them in the mind of the mujtahid. Thus, if these rulings are mixed-up, so at one time one acts on this and at another time on this, it will lead to contradiction, even if it does not appear to the apparent mind, because they may be built on different principles which contradict one another. So if he acts on all those rulings, he will be entangled in a contradiction without realising it, because even if those rulings are not self-contradictory, the principles on which those rulings are based are contradictory, so the contradiction is not visible between those rulings to the apparent mind, although it is verifiable with deeper thought.\u201d (Fayd al-B\u0101r\u012b, 1:459[55]; also quoted by Shaykh \u2018Abd al-Fatt\u0101h Ab\u016b Ghuddah in Tar\u0101jim Sittah min Fuqah\u0101\u2019 al-\u2018\u0100lam al-Isl\u0101m\u012b, Maktab al-Matb\u016b\u2018\u0101t al-Isl\u0101miyyah, p. 73)
\nAddenda
\nIsl\u0101mic Law vs. Secular Law
\nA common argument often produced against Isl\u0101mic law, particularly a reading of it in the manner described above, is that it is inherently a non-intellectual process that stagnated following the era of dynamic ijtih\u0101d in the first three or four centuries. Hence, it is argued, Isl\u0101mic law cannot be regarded as an asset to human civilisation and thinking, but as a formalistic \u2013 and rigid \u2013 code of laws that is unable to withstand challenges or undergo developments or adaptations to context and time. In contrast with this, it is claimed western secular law is an intellectual enterprise that may be manoeuvred through the myriad situations and specific legal cases it has to deal with in a rigorous, dynamic and fulfilling manner.
\nIs this argument, and this contrast between Isl\u0101mic and secular law, justified?
\nA close analysis of the history of Isl\u0101mic law reveals that, contrary to what is premised in this argument, taql\u012bd is not a stage of intellectual stagnation. In fact, taql\u012bd represents a higher and more developed stage of Isl\u0101mic legal thinking. The ijtih\u0101d that was a widespread activity in the first few centuries of Isl\u0101m represents a great number of different ways of interpreting the original sources of Shar\u012b\u2018ah \u2013 that is, the Qur\u2019\u0101n, Sunnah, consensus, analogy and inherited practice of the earliest generations. It is because of the successes realised by the early mujtahids in this formative period that taql\u012bd became the overriding legal paradigm following the third or fourth century. To introduce ijtih\u0101d at this later stage would be to \u201creinvent the wheel\u201d so to speak. In secular terms, taql\u012bd entails fitting new legal cases into existing \u201cprecedents\u201d. These authoritative precedents that have their roots in the Isl\u0101mic legal texts were fully codified in law schools established in the early centuries by the famous mujtahids credited with having founded them.
\nContrary to the suggestion in the abovementioned argument, taql\u012bd does not mean intellectual stagnation or immutability and rigidity. Taql\u012bd did not stop the process of legal thought. Taql\u012bd, in fact, entailed integrating the vast set of legal rulings handed down from the early mujtahids into unified schools of law. Many processes are incorporated into this stage of development, including making further divisions to existing laws (tafr\u012b\u2018), delineating exceptions to them, finding the legal causes (\u2018ilal) that they are premised on and so on. On this basis, taql\u012bd is not rigid and immutable. As it seeks to find the bases of legal rulings, this naturally entails that if there is any change to the underlying premises of any individual ruling, that would impact on the ruling itself. Based on this principle, taql\u012bd is adaptable and malleable to context and time.
\nOne of the most obvious indications that taql\u012bd is not stagnant and formalistic is the hierarchy of Isl\u0101mic lawyers (tabaq\u0101t al-fuqah\u0101\u2019) as discussed in books of Isl\u0101mic legal theory, like Nawaw\u012b\u2019s introduction to Sharh al-Muhadhdhab and Ibn \u2018\u0100bid\u012bn\u2019s Sharh \u2018Uq\u016bd Rasm al-Muft\u012b. The reason for the hierarchy \u2013 which remains till today \u2013 is precisely because not everyone is qualified to interpret the law, even as set in the Isl\u0101mic law schools (madhhabs). Only one who has gained an understanding of how a law school operates, and which rulings are immutable and which are context-specific, can he correctly issue a legal verdict. Underscoring this principle, Ibn \u2018\u0100bid\u012bn emphatically states (merely two centuries ago):
\n\u062c\u0645\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0636\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0638\u0627\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0642\u0648\u0644\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u062a\u0631\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0636\u062d\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0647\u0644 \u0628\u0623\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0633 \u064a\u0644\u0632\u0645 \u0645\u0646\u0647 \u062a\u0636\u064a\u064a\u0639 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0638\u0644\u0645 \u062e\u0644\u0642 \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631
\n\u201cA jurisconsult\u2019s rigidity on the outward of what has been passed down [i.e. the legal precedents established by the early mujtahids], while simultaneously disregarding the context and obvious [external] indicators, and displaying ignorance of the situations of people, entails squandering many rights and oppressing multitudes.\u201d (Sharh \u2018Uq\u016bd Rasm al-Muft\u012b, Maktab al-Bushr\u0101, p. 81)
\nMuch more can be said on this topic, and indeed much has been written on it already. One contemporary western historian of Isl\u0101mic law, Sherman Jackson, has published his thoughts on this positive outlook on taql\u012bd, which directly counters earlier orientalist criticism of the Isl\u0101mic legal tradition as stagnant and formalistic. See his: \u201cTaql\u012bd: Legal Scaffolding and the Scope of Legal Injunctions in Post-Formative Theory\u201d in the Journal of Islamic Law and Society, Vol. 3, No. 2.
\nTalf\u012bq
\nWhile a number of scholars have transmitted consensus on the invalidity of talf\u012bq, one will be hard-pressed to find any clear delineation between what kinds of talf\u012bq, if any, fall outside the scope of what has been regarded as unacceptable by consensus. However, from the examples that are offered and the reasoning that is presented, it is clear the talf\u012bq in question is in regards to mas\u0101\u2019il that are closely interlinked, like talf\u012bq within the mas\u0101\u2019il of wud\u016b\u2019 and sal\u0101h, or within the mas\u0101\u2019il of marriage. If they come from different areas of practice, however, like talf\u012bq between a mas\u2019alah from sal\u0101h and another mas\u2019alah from hajj, it would appear that the talf\u012bq in question would not arise.
\n\u2018All\u0101mah Q\u0101sim ibn Qutl\u016bbugh\u0101 (802 \u2013 879 H) in his al-Tash\u012bh wa l-Tarj\u012bh quotes Taq\u012b al-D\u012bn al-Subk\u012b (683 \u2013 756) as saying: \u201cTaql\u012bd in something that is made up of two different ijtih\u0101ds is invalid by consensus.\u201d Then \u2018All\u0101mah Q\u0101sim presents the example of a person who wiped a part of his head for wud\u016b\u2019, making taql\u012bd of Im\u0101m al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b, but then offered sal\u0101h with the impurity of a dog, making taql\u012bd of Im\u0101m M\u0101lik. The result is an action that is invalid according to both schools. (al-Tash\u012bh wa l-Tarj\u012bh, D\u0101r al-Kutub al-\u2018Ilmiyyah, p. 123). The example of talf\u012bq here as elsewhere illustrates that talf\u012bq is restricted to issues that are closely interconnected. Muft\u012b Muhammad Taq\u012b \u2018Uthm\u0101n\u012b quotes \u2018All\u0101mah Ashraf \u2018Al\u012b Th\u0101naw\u012b stating this explicitly:
\n\u201cTalf\u012bq is not permissible in one action which violates consensus. But when it is two different actions, talfiq (mixing) is valid, even if it necessitates violation of consensus outwardly…\u201d (al-H\u012blat al-N\u0101jizah li l-Hal\u012blat al-\u2018\u0100jizah, p. 15; quoted in Us\u016bl al-Ift\u0101\u2019 wa \u0100d\u0101buh\u016b, pp. 215-6)
\nIt should be noted that although talf\u012bq in two different nonrelated areas will not be regarded as invalid \u2013 hence, the actions will be deemed valid \u2013, this does not mean that talf\u012bq in this sense is permissible when there is no dire need (dar\u016brah). On the contrary, since the obligation in this period is to adhere strinctly to a single madhhab, and not shift on individual issues (as stated by major jurists belonging to all four madhhabs), to do so will be impermissible.
\nZameelur Rahman
\n[1] \u201cNon-mujtahids\u201d in this context refers to those who have not reached the level of \u201cijtih\u0101d\u201d in all its forms, whether absolute ijtih\u0101d or restricted ijtih\u0101d, though they may be learned scholars. T\u0101j al-D\u012bn \u2018Abd al-Wahh\u0101b al-Subk\u012b (727 \u2013 771 H) said: \u201cTaql\u012bd is to adopt a view without [detailed] knowledge of its evidence, and it is binding on the non-mujtahid.\u201d (Jam\u2018 al-Jaw\u0101mi\u2018, D\u0101r al-Kutub al-\u2018Ilmiyyah, p. 121) Al-Sayf Al-\u0100mid\u012b (551 \u2013 631 H) said: \u201cIt is binding on the layperson and the one who does not have the qualification of ijtih\u0101d \u2013 even though he has acquired some sciences that are taken into consideration for ijtih\u0101d \u2013 to follow the view of the mujtahids and to accept their fatwas according to the verifiers from the Us\u016bl\u012bs.\u201d (Al-Ihk\u0101m f\u012b Us\u016bl al-Ahk\u0101m, D\u0101r al-Sam\u012b\u2018\u012b, 4:278)
\n[2] As explicitly stated by Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d in the passage from him quoted below.
\n[3] Literally meaning \u201cto join together\u201d, talf\u012bq is to make taql\u012bd of two or more Im\u0101ms in one issue in such a way that the resultant action is regarded as invalid by all the Im\u0101ms whose taql\u012bd was made.
\n[4] \u2018All\u0101mah Q\u0101sim ibn Qutl\u016bbugh\u0101 (d. 879 H) said: \u201cThe ruling produced from talf\u012bq is invalid by the consensus of the Muslims.\u201d (Al-Tash\u012bh wa l-Tarj\u012bh \u2018al\u0101 Mukhtasar al-Qud\u016br\u012b, D\u0101r al-Kutub al-\u2018Ilmiyyah, pp. 122-3)
\n[5] Marginal and fringe opinions which were rejected and condemned by the overwhelming majority of \u2018ulam\u0101\u2019. Examples include the permissibility of mut\u2018ah marriage, the permissibility of selling one silver coin for two on spot and the permissibility of musical instruments.
\n[6] It is reported from Im\u0101m al-Awz\u0101\u2018\u012b (d. 157 H) that he said: \u201cThe one who selects the rareties of the \u2018ulam\u0101\u2019 exits Isl\u0101m.\u201d (Us\u016bl al-Ift\u0101\u2019 wa \u0100d\u0101buh, Makataba Ma\u2018\u0101rif al-Qur\u2019\u0101n, p. 206)
\n[7] The scholars of Us\u016bl discuss a particular situation known as \u2018adam al qawl bi \u2018l-fasl (the nonexistence of an opinion of distinction). If there are two issues, \u2018A\u2019 and \u2018B\u2019, and a group of scholars took opinion \u2018X\u2019 in both A and B and a second group took opinion \u2018Y\u2019 in both A and B, but there is no scholar who held the opinion of X in one and Y in the other, this is known as \u201c\u2018adam al qawl bi \u2018l-fasl\u201d. Now, would it be permissible for a later scholar to adopt an opinion which makes a \u201cdistinction\u201d between the two, i.e. opinion X in one and opinion Y in the other? The answer given by the author of Us\u016bl al-Sh\u0101sh\u012b is that if the ruling given on B by both groups is based on the same principle on which their opinions on A was based, then it is not permissible, as to do so would be to adopt two contradictory principles. (Us\u016bl al-Sh\u0101sh\u012b, D\u0101r al-Gharb al-Isl\u0101m\u012b, pp. 213-4)
\n[8] Im\u0101m Ahmad al-Wanshir\u012bs\u012b al-M\u0101lik\u012b (d. 914 H) said: \u201cWhat is understood from the force of the speech of these im\u0101ms \u2013 may the pleasure of All\u0101h be upon them \u2013 is that that which is prohibited is seeking out the easiest opinions of all the madhhabs, not a single madhhab. The verification is that there is no [apparent] distinction, but that which they made the reason for the prohibition, in that it will lead to relinquishing [religious] responsibility in every issue that is differed upon, only becomes completely apparent in the first [i.e. seeking out the easiest opinions of all the madhhabs] not the second [i.e. seeking out the easiest opinions within a madhhab]; because a matter is often prohibited in one madhhab by agreement and permissible in another by agreement or disagreement, so if we permitted seeking out dispensations from [all] the madhhabs it will lead to what they said, because what the madhhabs [all] agree upon is few. Seeking out the easiest opinions of one madhhab is not so, as it has fewer negative repercussions than the first.\u201d (Al-Mi\u2018y\u0101r al-Mu\u2018rib, 12:32)
\n[9] Ibn al-Munayyir al-M\u0101lik\u012b of the seventh century mentioned this point. See his quote below under the section, \u201cThe Layperson has no Madhhab\u201d?
\n[10] It is mentioned in Sah\u012bh al-Bukh\u0101r\u012b, for example, that the people of Mad\u012bnah would follow exclusively the verdicts of Zayd ibn Th\u0101bit.
\n[11] \u201cMujtahid im\u0101ms\u201d refer to both \u201cmujtahids in the madhhab\u201d (mujtahid fi l-madhhab) who are capable of deriving new rulings based on the principles and precedents from the madhhab, and \u201cmujtahids of fatwa\u201d (mujtahid fi l-futy\u0101) who have the ability to assess the stronger opinions of the madhhab.
\n[12] All\u0101mah Ibn \u2018\u0100bid\u012bn proves this principle of the madhhab in his Sharh \u2018Uq\u016bd Rasm al-Muft\u012b (Maktabat al-Buhsr\u0101, pp. 52-3), quoting from al-H\u0101w\u012b al-Quds\u012b and Fat\u0101w\u0101 Q\u0101d\u012bKh\u0101n.
\n[13] Kafaw\u012b said, \u201cThe leadership of the Hanaf\u012bs culminated at him.\u201d (al-Faw\u0101\u2019id al-Bahiyyah, D\u0101r al-Ma\u2018rifah, p. 164-6)
\n[14] \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0644\u0648 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u0627 \u0644\u0633\u0627\u063a \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0644\u062f \u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062a\u0647\u062f \u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0645\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0648\u0649\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0642\u0628\u064a\u062d…\u0648\u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f \u0623\u0644\u0632\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u0628\u0639 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u0627 \u0648\u0642\u0639 \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u0628\u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0623\u0639\u0644\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0628\u0647\u0648\u0649 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647 (\u062a\u0642\u0648\u064a\u0645 \u0623\u0635\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u0647\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u060c \u062c.\u0662 \u0635.\u0668\u0666\u0668)
\n[15] He was described as one of the senior \u2018Ir\u0101q\u012b jurists and authors of W\u0101qi\u2018\u0101t and Naw\u0101zil (al-Faw\u0101\u2019id al-Bahiyyah, p. 36)
\n[16] \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0623\u0628\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u0627\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0641\u064a: \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0625\u0630\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0623\u0647\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0627\u0642 \u0623\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u062d\u0646\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0631\u062d\u0645\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0648\u0623\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0633\u0641 \u0648\u0623\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0623\u0648 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0632\u0641\u0631\u060c \u0641\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0644\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0623\u062e\u0630 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u0643 (\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u062a\u0631\u062f\u062f \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0635\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0643\u0627\u0645 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0633\u064a\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631\u060c \u0635.\u0662\u0667)
\n[17] Al-Kafaw\u012b said: \u201cHe was amongst the mujtahids of his era.\u201d (Faw\u0101\u2019id Bahiyya, p. 263) He was a student of Im\u0101m Burh\u0101n al-D\u012bn Margh\u012bn\u0101n\u012b, the author of al-Hid\u0101yah, and is the author of J\u0101mi\u2018 Ahk\u0101m al-Sigh\u0101r amongst other works.
\n[18] \u0648\u062c\u0627\u0632 \u0644\u0644\u0631\u062c\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0623\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u0642\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a \u0648\u0643\u0630\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0643\u0633 \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0623\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0633\u0623\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u060c \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0644\u0648 \u062e\u0631\u062c \u062f\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0648\u0633\u0627\u0644 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0644\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0635\u0644\u064a \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u0648\u0636\u0623 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0623\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0635\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u0648\u0636\u0623 \u064a\u0635\u0641\u0639\u060c \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0628\u0639\u0636\u0647\u0645: \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0648 \u0634\u0641\u0639\u0648\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0628\u0639\u0636\u0647\u0645: \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0642\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0631\u062d\u0645\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0644\u064a\u0632\u0648\u062c\u0647 \u0648\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0644\u063a\u0629 \u0628\u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0631\u0636\u0627\u0647\u0627 \u064a\u062e\u0627\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0633\u0644\u0628 \u0625\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0647 \u0648\u0642\u062a \u0645\u0648\u062a\u0647 \u0644\u0625\u0647\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0647 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062c\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0642\u0630\u0631\u0629 (\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0627\u0647\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0631\u0648\u0634\u0646\u064a\u060c \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u060c \u0635.\u0669\/\u0623)
\n[19] He was mufti of Sijist\u0101n, a learned Im\u0101m with extensive knowledge of both fundamentals and peripherals (al-Faw\u0101\u2019id al-Bahiyyah, p. 201)
\n[20] \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u0627\u062f \u0645\u0623\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u062f\u0644\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0639…\u0623\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0642 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0648\u0633\u0639 \u0643\u0644 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0631\u062c\u062d \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0644\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0648\u064a\u062c\u062a\u0647\u062f \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u0628\u063a\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0631\u062c\u062d \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0631\u0649 \u0648\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u062a\u0628\u0639\u0627 \u0644\u0647\u060c \u0641\u0625\u0630\u0627 \u062a\u0623\u0645\u0644 \u0648\u0631\u062c\u062d \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0648\u0631\u0623\u0649 \u0623\u0646 \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0648\u0627\u0628 \u0628\u0637\u0644 \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0642\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0647\u0645 \u0643\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0647\u062f \u0625\u0630\u0627 \u0635\u062d \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0642\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0625\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0643\u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0644\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0633 \u0643\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0623\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647\u060c \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0623\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0644\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0626\u0631 \u0648\u062a\u0631\u062c\u064a\u062d \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0644\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0623\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u062a\u0631\u062c\u064a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0625\u0630 \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0641\u064a \u0648\u0633\u0639\u0647\u0645 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0630\u0644\u0643\u060c \u0644\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0645\u062a\u062b\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u062a\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0649 (\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0627\u0648\u0649\u060c \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637 \u0635.\u0663\u0661\u0667\/\u0628-\u0663\u0661\u0668\/\u0623)
\n[21] \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u062e\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0645\u0627 \u0633\u0626\u0644 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0635\u0628 \u0641\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u060c \u0642\u0627\u0644: \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0641\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u062c\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0635\u0628 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0647 \u0648\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0647 \u062d\u0642\u0627 \u0648\u0635\u0648\u0627\u0628\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0635\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0627\u0647\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u064a \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0631\u062c\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0642\u0635\u0647 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0623\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0637\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0647\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0648\u0627\u0628 (\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0627\u0648\u0649\u060c \u0635.\u0663\u0660\u0669\/\u0628)
\n[22] He studied fiqh under Ab\u016b Ja\u2018far al-Astr\u016bshan\u012b, and was one of the brilliant Hanaf\u012b scholars from Transoxiana. (al-Faw\u0101\u2019id al-Bahiyyah, p. 109)
\n[23] \u0648\u0645\u0646 \u062c\u0639\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u0627 \u0623\u062b\u0628\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062e\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0628\u0647\u0648\u0649 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647. \u0648\u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0641\u064a \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f \u0623\u0644\u0632\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u0628\u0639 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u0627 \u0648\u0642\u0639 \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u0628\u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0623\u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0628\u0647\u0648\u0649 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647 (\u062a\u0642\u0648\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0644\u0629\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0635.\u0664\u0661\u0660)
\n[24] \u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0641\u062a\u0635\u062f \u0648\u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0647\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0642 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0633\u0648\u063a \u0644\u0647 \u0630\u0644\u0643 (\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0632\u0627\u0647\u062f\u064a\u060c \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u060c \u0635.\u0669\u0663\/\u0623)
\n[25] Author of al-Hid\u0101yah, an Im\u0101m, h\u0101fiz of had\u012bth and exegete, with innumerable virtues. He was an unmatched authority in the Hanaf\u012b madhhab. He studied under Najm al-D\u012bn \u2018Umar al-Nasaf\u012b, al-Sadr al-Shah\u012bd and others. (al-Faw\u0101\u2019id al-Bahiyyah, p. 141)
\n[26] \u0631\u062c\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0642 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0648\u062c \u062b\u0645 \u062a\u0632\u0648\u062c \u0627\u0645\u0631\u0623\u0629 \u0641\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0645\u0646 \u0634\u0641\u0639\u0648\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0641\u0623\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0642 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u062d\u062c\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0642\u0647 (\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0632\u0644\u060c \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u060c \u0635.\u0663\u0666\/\u0628)
\n[27] \u0648\u064e\u0627\u0644\u0652\u063a\u064e\u0627\u0644\u0650\u0628\u064f \u0623\u064e\u0646\u0651\u064e \u0645\u0650\u062b\u0652\u0644\u064e \u0647\u064e\u0630\u0650\u0647\u0650 \u0625\u0644\u0652\u0632\u064e\u0627\u0645\u064e\u0627\u062a\u064c \u0645\u0650\u0646\u0652\u0647\u064f\u0645\u0652 \u0644\u0650\u0643\u064e\u0641\u0651\u0650 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0651\u064e\u0627\u0633\u0650 \u0639\u064e\u0646\u0652 \u062a\u064e\u062a\u064e\u0628\u0651\u064f\u0639\u0650 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0651\u064f\u062e\u064e\u0635\u0650 \u0648\u064e\u0625\u0650\u0644\u0651\u064e\u0627 \u0623\u064e\u062e\u064e\u0630\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0652\u0639\u064e\u0627\u0645\u0651\u0650\u064a\u0651\u064f \u0641\u0650\u064a \u0643\u064f\u0644\u0651\u0650 \u0645\u064e\u0633\u0652\u0623\u064e\u0644\u064e\u0629\u064d \u0628\u0650\u0642\u064e\u0648\u0652\u0644\u0650 \u0645\u064f\u062c\u0652\u062a\u064e\u0647\u0650\u062f\u064d \u0642\u064e\u0648\u0652\u0644\u064f\u0647\u064f \u0623\u064e\u062e\u064e\u0641\u0651\u064f \u0639\u064e\u0644\u064e\u064a\u0652\u0647\u0650 (\u0641\u062a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0631\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062c.\u0668 \u0635.\u0662\u0663\u0669)
\n[28] \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0633\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0645\u064a: \u0644\u0648 \u0623\u062e\u0630\u062a \u0628\u0631\u062e\u0635\u0629 \u0643\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0641\u064a\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631 \u0643\u0644\u0647\u061b \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0639\u0628\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631 \u0645\u0639\u0642\u0628\u0627: \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0639 \u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0641\u064a\u0647 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0641\u0627 (\u0632\u062c\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0647\u0627\u0621 \u0639\u0646 \u062a\u062a\u0628\u0639 \u0631\u062e\u0635 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u0647\u0627\u0621\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0627\u0626\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0635.\u0665\u0660)
\n[29] \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u062d\u0632\u0645 \u0648\u0623\u0628\u0648 \u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0642\u062f \u062d\u0643\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0639 \u0648\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u0644\u060c \u0648\u0639\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0646\u062f\u0627 \u0641\u064a\u062d\u062a\u0645\u0644 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0631\u0623\u064a\u0627 \u0631\u0622\u0647 \u0641\u062a\u0641\u0631\u062f \u0628\u0647\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0644\u0627\u0632\u0645 \u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0638\u0627\u0647\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0648\u0629 \u0643\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0647\u060c \u0648\u0623\u064a\u0627 \u0645\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u0647\u0648 \u0625\u062d\u062f\u0627\u062b \u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0639 \u0641\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0637\u0644\u0627 \u0644\u062a\u0636\u0645\u0646\u0647 \u062a\u062e\u0637\u0626\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0629\u060c \u0648\u062a\u062e\u0637\u0626\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0645\u062a\u0646\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0642\u0631\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0635\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u0647 (\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0628\u060c \u062c.\u0661\u0662 \u0635.\u0663\u0661)
\n[30] He was the shaykh of the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012bs in his time. Abu Sa\u2018d al-Sam\u2018\u0101n\u012b said: \u201cAbu l-Ma\u2018\u0101l\u012b was the absolute im\u0101m of im\u0101ms, with consensus in the east and the west on his im\u0101mah. Eyes have not seen the like of him.\u201d (Siyar A\u2018l\u0101m al-Nubal\u0101\u2019, Mu\u2019assat al-Ris\u0101lah, 18:469)
\n[31] \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0642\u064a\u0644: \u0641\u0647\u0644 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u062d\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u062d\u0646\u064a\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0630\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627\u062c\u061f \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0642\u0644\u062a\u0645: \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0628\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0647 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u062d\u0627\u062c\u0629 \u062d\u064a\u0646\u0626\u0630 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0648\u0636\u0639 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0631\u0628 \u0644\u0647 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0642\u060c \u0628\u0644 \u064a\u0641\u0639\u0644 \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0634\u0627\u0621 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u064a\u0647\u0648\u0627\u0647 \u0648\u064a\u062a\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0647.
\n\u0641\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0628: \u0642\u0644\u0646\u0627: \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0645\u0627 \u0642\u0644\u062a\u0645\u0648\u0647\u060c \u0628\u0644 \u064a\u062c\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u062d\u062a\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628 \u0625\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0631\u0636\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0639\u0646\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0639 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0648\u0639\u060c \u0648\u0625\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u0643 \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u062d\u0646\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0631\u0636\u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0644\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u062d\u0644 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0647\u0648\u0627\u0647 \u0648\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u062d\u0646\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0627\u0642\u064a \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0631\u0636\u0627\u0647\u060c \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627 \u0644\u0648 \u062c\u0648\u0632\u0646\u0627\u0647 \u0644\u0623\u062f\u0649 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0628\u0637 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062e\u0631\u0648\u062c \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0628\u0637\u060c \u0648\u062d\u0627\u0635\u0644\u0647 \u064a\u0631\u062c\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0641 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0643\u0644\u064a\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0641\u0627\u0626\u062f\u0629\u060c \u0625\u0630 \u0625\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0625\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u0636\u0649 \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0645 \u0634\u064a\u0621 \u0628\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0647 \u0623\u0648 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u0643\u0633\u0647 \u0641\u0647\u0648 \u0625\u0646 \u0634\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0644 \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0634\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0645\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062a\u062d\u0642\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0644 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0646\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0643\u0644\u064a\u0641 \u0648\u0625\u0628\u0637\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u0627\u0626\u062f\u062a\u0647 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0626\u0635\u0627\u0644 \u0642\u0627\u0639\u062f\u062a\u0647 \u0648\u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0628\u0627\u0637\u0644.
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\n[32] He was the shaykh of the Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012bs, a teacher of the Niz\u0101miyyah and one of the prime students of Im\u0101m al-Juwayn\u012b. (Tabaq\u0101t al-Sh\u0101fi\u2018iyyah al-Kubr\u0101, 7:231)
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\n[34] He was the leading student of al-Juwayn\u012b and a major authority in fiqh, us\u016bl and other sciences, famed throughout the Muslim world in both scholarly and non-scholarly circles.
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\n[38] A senior Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b scholar who studied under both Ilkiy\u0101 al-Harr\u0101s\u012b and al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b.
\n[39] \u0641\u0644\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0645 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0627 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0627 \u0643\u0645\u0627\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0642\u062f \u0631\u062c\u062d\u0627\u0646\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0644\u060c \u0641\u0647\u0644 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0648\u064a\u0623\u062e\u0630 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0644 \u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062c\u062a\u0647\u062f \u0622\u062e\u0631\u061f \u0641\u064a\u0647 \u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628: \u0623\u062d\u062f\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0639 \u0648\u0628\u0647 \u062c\u0632\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0644\u064a \u0641\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u062c\u0627\u0632\u060c \u0644\u0623\u0646 \u0642\u0648\u0644 \u0643\u0644 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0644 \u0628\u0622\u062d\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0639\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u0636\u0631\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u0647\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0644\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u062e\u0635 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0644\u0627\u0639\u0628 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646. (\u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u064a\u0637\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u0648\u0629\u060c \u062c.\u0666 \u0635.\u0663\u0662\u0660)
\n[40] \u0648\u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u064a\u0642\u062a\u0636\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u062c\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u062d\u0644 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0627 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0627 \u0627\u0628\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0621 (\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0635\u0648\u0644\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u062a\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0635.\u0663\u0669\u0662\u0660)
\n[41] He was the greatest Sh\u0101fi\u2018\u012b jurist of his time. (Siyar A\u2018l\u0101m al-Nubal\u0101\u2019, 17:406)
\n[42] \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e: \u064a\u0646\u0638\u0631: \u0625\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646\u062a\u0633\u0628\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0628\u0646\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0647 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0648\u062c\u0647\u064a\u0646 \u062d\u0643\u0627\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0636\u064a \u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0647\u0644 \u0644\u0647 \u0645\u062f\u0647\u0628 \u0623\u0645 \u0644\u0627\u061f…\u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0635\u062d \u0639\u0646\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0641\u0627\u0644: \u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0648\u0632 \u0645\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0647 (\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639 \u0634\u0631\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u0630\u0647\u0628\u060c \u0635.\u0669\u0663)
\n[43] \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0649 \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0633\u0628 \u0625\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0648\u0631\u062c\u0647 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647 \u0641\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u0645\u0648\u062c\u0628 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0642\u0627\u062f\u0647 \u0630\u0644\u0643\u060c \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a\u0627 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0644\u0647 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u064a \u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641 \u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0647 (\u0623\u062f\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u064a\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0635.\u0668\u0667)
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\n[45] One of the leading scholars of his time, author of the renowned and indispensable work, al-Shif\u0101\u2019, commentator of Sah\u012bh Muslim, and, like al-Ghaz\u0101l\u012b, in need of no introduction.
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\n[47] A major M\u0101lik\u012b Im\u0101m, commentator of Sah\u012bh Muslim, and a teacher of Q\u0101d\u012b \u2018Iy\u0101d
\n[48] He was a leading Hanbal\u012b authority in his time, his most senior teacher being \u2018Abd al-Q\u0101dir al-Ruh\u0101w\u012b (536 \u2013 612 H). Ibn Rajab al-Hanbal\u012b said: \u201cKnowledge of the [Hanbal\u012b] madhhab, its subtleties and its obscurities, reached its peak in him.\u201d (al-Dhayl \u2018al\u0101 Tabaq\u0101t al-Han\u0101bilah, Maktabah al-\u2018Ab\u012bk\u0101n, 4:267)
\n[49] \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0639\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u0631\u0649: \u064a\u0644\u0632\u0645 \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0642\u0644\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0645 \u0628\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0634\u0647\u0631\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0644\u062f \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0647\u0644\u0647 (\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0635\u0627\u0641\u060c \u062c.\u0661\u0661 \u0635.\u0661\u0669\u0664)
\n[50] \u0648\u062d\u0643\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0639\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0631\u0648\u064a \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0623\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0627\u0645 [\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a] \u0623\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0623\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628\u0646\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0644\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0644\u0647 (\u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u064a\u0637\u060c \u062c.\u0666 \u0635.\u0663\u0662\u0660)
\n[51] One of the outstanding Egyptian scholars, about whom \u2018Izz al-D\u012bn ibn \u2018Abd al-Sal\u0101m said: \u201cThe Egyptian lands boasts of two men on its borders: Ibn al-Munayyir in Alexandira and Ibn Daq\u012bq al-\u2018\u012ad in al-Qaws.\u201d (Editor\u2019s introduction to al-Tays\u012br al-\u2018Aj\u012bb fi Tafs\u012br al-Ghar\u012bb, D\u0101r al-Gharb al-Isl\u0101m\u012b, p. 17)
\n[52] \u0648\u062a\u0648\u0633\u0637 \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0631 \u0641\u0642\u0627\u0644: \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u064a\u0642\u062a\u0636\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0627 \u0642\u0628\u0644\u0647\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0642 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0633 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u062f\u0648\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628\u0647\u0645 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0643\u062b\u0631\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0645\u060c \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0643\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0639 \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a \u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627 \u0644\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0644\u0647 \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0648\u0644\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a\u060c \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0634\u062a\u0647\u0631 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639\u0629\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0642\u0639\u062a \u0644\u0647 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0630\u0644\u0643\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062a\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u0636\u062f\u0647 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0633\u0631 \u062e\u0627\u0635\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u0641\u0647\u0645\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628 \u0648\u062f\u0648\u0646\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0634\u062a\u0647\u0631\u062a \u0648\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062e\u0635 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u062f\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u0642\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0631\u0643\u0648\u0646\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062d\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0633\u0647\u0627\u0644 (\u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u064a\u0637\u060c \u062c.\u0666 \u0635.\u0663\u0661\u0669-\u0662\u0660)
\n[53] \u0648\u0632\u0639\u0645 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0644\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0645\u0646\u0648\u0639 \u0628\u0644 \u064a\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0647 \u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0630\u0627\u0643 \u0625\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631\u0647\u0627 (\u062a\u062d\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062a\u0627\u062c \u0628\u0634\u0631\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627\u062c\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062c.\u0661 \u0635.\u0664\u0668\u0667)
\n[54] \u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u0628\u0643\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u064a \u0642\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0647\u062f\u0644: \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0628\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0644\u0627 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u062a\u0643\u0627\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u062a\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0648\u0649 \u0628\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0646\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0623\u062e\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u062d\u062d \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u064a\u062c\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0628\u0631 \u062d\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0633\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u0647\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0645\u060c \u062c\u0632\u0645 \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0643\u0644\u064a\u0641\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0642\u0631\u064a\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062d\u064a\u0644 (\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0635\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0627\u0626\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0627\u0626\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0635.\u0664\u0668)
\n[55] \u062b\u0645 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0643 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0646\u064f\u062c\u064e\u064a\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0642\u0636\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0627\u0626\u062a\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0628\u0646\u064e \u0639\u0627\u0628\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u00ab\u0631\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062a\u0627\u0631\u00bb \u0648\u0633\u0651\u064e\u0639\u064b\u0627 \u0633\u0647\u0648\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u064f\u0636\u0650\u0631\u064b\u0627\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0648\u0633\u0651\u064e\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u064f\u0645\u0651\u0650\u064a\u0651\u0650 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0644\u0645 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628\u064e \u0623\u062d\u062f\u064d \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0641\u062a\u064a\u064e \u0641\u064a \u0635\u0644\u0648\u0627\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0645\u0633\u0650 \u0623\u064a\u0651\u064e \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0634\u0627\u0621\u060c \u0648\u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0634\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0646 \u0641\u062a\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0647\u0645.
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\n(Taken From:\u00a0http:\/\/www.askimam.org\/)<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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